Challenging Confucian-Legalist State: The Secret Languages and the Circulations of the Subaltern Knowledge of Politics in Premodern China

Zhen Wei, University of Edinburgh

This paper explores how political and religious knowledge is disseminated among subaltern individuals under the authoritarian states of premodern China. Premodern China is where social elites and the state combined Confucian ethics and Legalist regulations to govern, monopolising power and suppressing other ideological beliefs. However, subaltern individuals possess their unique political understanding and consciousness that differs from the dominant Confucian-legalist system. These ideologies, originating from Taoist thought and incorporating diverse influences, remained embedded within everyday life and texts. Despite state efforts to curtail these ideas, their pervasive nature defied complete control. In this paper, I aim to uncover traces of these ideologies and elucidate their modes of transmission. I examined over thirty texts used in the dissemination of heterodox religious beliefs and rebellions during the Qing dynasty. I find that the language used in these texts is often unclear and ambiguous, making it challenging for people to understand their actual meaning. However, I argue that it is precisely through such enigmatic forms that subalterns convey political messages under strict censorship. These cryptic messages, hidden within seemingly meaningless secret phrases and mantras, become intelligible only when interpreted alongside folk stories. The widespread and challenging-to-censor nature of folk stories provides a "codebook" for subalterns, allowing them to unlock encrypted political messages. This dissemination approach not only preserved subversive political thought but also fuelled resistance. Conversely, it restricts the efficiency of political thought transmission and imbues subaltern politics with mythological narratives, fostering unrealistic fantasies. While using creative language to circumvent censorship in contemporary China has garnered attention, this paper offers a historical perspective on transmitting the political knowledge through secret language and discusses its political ramifications. It also provides insights into how folk culture assists societal resistance against state power and censorship.

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 Presented in Session 49. Comparative and Historical State Formation